COMMAS

I. WITH INDEPENDENT CLAUSES

Use commas to join independent clauses separated by a conjunction, such as and, but, or, nor, either-or, neither-nor, for, so, and yet.

Many witnesses were prepared to testify, but only a few were called.

The power company must comply with the new regulations, or the Justice Department will begin litigation.

Neither the will nor the codicil was properly executed.

Either the defendant must compensate the families of the victims, or the court will impose criminal penalties.

The rule does not apply to compound subjects or compound verbs. The comma must separate independent clauses (complete sentences).

The defendant must compensate the families of the victims and shut down his business.

The defendant and his associates must compensate the families of the victims.

The defendant must compensate the families of the victims and his employees.

A good money manager controls expenses and invests surplus dollars to meet future needs.

There are exceptions to the rule:
1. Short main clauses joined by conjunctions require no comma:

The defendant testified and the trial then adjourned.

2. Also, you may use a semicolon if there is punctuation WITHIN the clause (internal punctuation):

The mayor, city council, and county commission agreed to delay consideration of the redistricting survey; but the mayor's opponent, along with several neighborhood organizations, demanded an immediate decision.

A COMMA SPLICE occurs when you use commas to join independent clauses with a comma instead of a period.

The government attorneys discussed possible settlements, however, the plaintiff's attorneys made no concessions.

However, very short independent clauses may be joined with commas.

He came, he saw, he conquered.

Better: He came; he saw; he conquered.

II. WITH INTRODUCTORY WORD GROUPS OR DEPENDENT CLAUSES

Use a comma after an introductory, dependent clauses or introductory word groups.

Because he had not filed taxes for three years, the IRS became suspicious.

In its first year of operation, the company's stock prices soared.

When the judge discovered a juror had talked to a reporter, the judge declared a mistrial.

Some of these introductory clauses are short prepositional phrases (beginning with in, at, as, to, with, etc.):

In Montana v. Wilson, the court found the ordinance unconstitutional.

As Justice O'Connor noted, no public official is exempt from the regulation.

To determine the damages, the jury must decide the relative degree of liability.

Use commas to set off transitional expressions–either one-word expressions or phrases:

No authorized representative of the corporation, however, signed the contract.

However, no authorized representative of the corporation signed the contract.

No authorized representative of the corporation signed the contract, however.

Therefore, the court finds that the defendant did not violate his parole.

Notice that the commas set off the expressions at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of sentences:

The defendant's conduct, however, merits review by the parole board.

No child support payments were made; instead, the husband allowed his wife to use the home rent-free.

Two witnesses saw the victim's car parked in the driveway, nevertheless.

As a matter of fact, the insurance company's assets were a matter of public record.

On the other hand, the company's agent embezzled a portion of the monthly payments.

A partial list of transitional expressions:
(For contrast): however, nevertheless, on the other hand, conversely, still, in contrast, yet, on the contrary, nonetheless, instead, contrary to ________, unlike ___________, despite _____________, rather, alternatively.

(For comparison): similarly, analogously, likewise, in the same way, for the same reason.

(For addition): also, moreover, besides, further, too, in addition, furthermore, additionally.

(For examples): for example, for instance, namely, specifically, that is.

(For emphasis): in fact, above all, certainly, indeed, still, clearly.

(For evaluation): more importantly, unfortunately, fortunately, arguably, surprisingly.

(For restatement): in other words, more simply, that is, simply put.

(For concession): granted, of course, to be sure.

(For resumption after a concession): still, nevertheless, nonetheless, all the same.

(For time): subsequently, later, earlier, recently, eventually, afterwards, meanwhile, shortly thereafter, until now, initially, simultaneously, formerly, at the time.

(For sequence): first, second, third, next, then, in the first place, finally.

(For place): adjacent to, here, nearby, next to, beyond, opposite to.

(For conclusion): in summary, therefore, in brief, thus, in short, in sum, to sum up, to conclude, consequently, finally, in conclusion.

One exception to this rule concerns the word thus. When the word thus is used to mean "in this way," the word is not set off by commas. When thus means "therefore" or "in conclusion," it should be set off by comma(s).

Even though, you should set off transitional expressions with commas, many writers and editors omit the comma for short, two- or three-word phrases:

In Ryan v. Still the court held that the defendant must be committed.

But short clauses must be punctuated where there is a danger of misreading:

Three weeks before, the seller had requested an extension.

While we were eating, the President passed by with his entourage.

Use a comma after an introductory clause that begins with adverb or subordinating conjunction (because, although, despite, since, when, after, if, etc.).

Because the parties could not settle, the judge set the case for trial.

Although the victim lived alone, the neighbor was a frequent visitor.

**But when you reverse these sentences and put the adverbial clause at the end of the main clause, you do NOT necessarily need a comma. If the adverbial clause is restrictive and limits the action of a verb to a time, manner, or circumstance), you need no comma. If the adverbial clause is nonrestrictive (i.e., it simply supplies additional information), you use a comma between the independent clause and the adverbial clause.

Clauses introduced by if are always restrictive and are not set off by commas:
A conclusion may be found if the two sides meet today.

Clauses introduced by because and unless are usually restrictive, but they can be nonrestrictive:
He missed class because he was sick.

When clauses beginning with after, as, before, since, when, and while restrict the time of the main verb, they should not be set off with commas:
The trailer entered the parking lot as the game was ending.
Morton was drinking beer while he was driving the boat.

When adverbial clauses beginning with as, since, or while do not restrict the time of the verb but rather express cause or condition, they are nonrestrictive and should be set off by commas:
Souter returned to the scene of the accident, as he wanted to get his story straight.
Venable was unable to read the contract, since she had had eye surgery only two days earlier.

Clauses introduced by the adverbs although and though are always nonrestrictive, so they must be set off with commas:
He admitted that he cheated on his taxes, although he claims his accountant misled him.

Other examples:
The judge set the case for trial because the parties could not settle.

The neighbor was a frequent visitor although the victim lived alone.

Non-restrictive clause: The applicant did not meet the criteria for leasing the building, although he could still apply for further consideration.

Participles (modifiers that end in -ing for present participles or -ed for past participles) should be punctuated by commas, either at the beginning, middle, or end of a sentence:

Refusing to listen to his attorney's advice, the accused murderer took the stand.

The accused murderer took the stand, refusing to listen to his attorney's advice.

The accused murderer, refusing to listen to advice, took the stand.

The accused murderer, sweating, took the stand.

Steaming with anger, the judge called the attorneys to his chambers.

Stopping, he listened for a footstep behind him.

Absolutes (phrases that usually consist of a noun followed by a participle or participial phrase) are another kind of modifying phrase or clause that should be punctuated with commas:

Its liquor license revoked and its lease cancelled, the bar stood empty on the south side of town, advertising a Ladies' Night Special.

The jury members, their eyes watering, listened to the closing argument.

III. TO SEPARATE ITEMS IN A SERIES

Use a comma to separate items in a series at the end of the sentence.

NOTE: This is one rule that differs according to professional practice. The question becomes whether to place the comma after the next-to-last item in the series (in other words, whether to place the comma before the conjunction). The Associated Press Stylebook and many legal publications do not recognize this use of the comma, unless there is a danger of misreading the sentence. Most usage manuals prefer the comma because it gives a clear sense of order to the items in the series:

AP Stylebook:
One legislator each is chosen from Bibb, Perry and Dallas counties.

Standard:
On legislator each is chosen from Bibb, Perry, and Dallas counties.

At the university, he took courses in Biology, American History, and Literature.

The commas preceding the conjunctions in the both sentences seem desirable; without them, a reader might logically expect, for example, "American History and Literature" to be one course.

You may use semicolon to separate items that contain internal punctuation:

He based his conclusion on testimony from eye-witnesses, including the victim's brother-in-law; on newspaper accounts; and on an interview with one of the survivors.

Be careful to distinguish the above cases, in which the series occurs at the end of the sentence, from examples in which the series occurs initially:

The foreman, site manager, and a district supervisor wrote separate reports of the incident.

The same rule for punctuating the next-to-last item applies, but notice that there is no comma after last item ("supervisor").

III. TO SEPARATE NON-RESTRICTIVE CLAUSES IN THE SENTENCE

Restrictive clauses (or defining) limit or restrict the meaning of the word they modify. Thus, they are not set off in a sentence by commas:

Lawyers who are corrupt deserve to be disbarred.

(The restrictive phrase who are corrupt modifies the kind of lawyers, and thus the phrase is NECESSARY to the meaning of the sentence. No punctuation is required).

Nonrestrictive elements do NOT limit the meaning of the word they modify. They can be superfluous or parenthetical elements. They ARE set off by commas:

Lawyers, who are licensed by the state, must pay the license tax.

(The non-restrictive phrase who are licensed by the state is NOT NECESSARY to the meaning of the sentence and is thus set off by commas. The clause could be set off by parentheses or by dashes, or it could be omitted without changing the meaning of the setence).

Sometimes modifying phrases can be either restrictive or nonrestrictive:

The houses needing a coat of paint were given one. [restrictive]
The houses, needing a coat of paint, were given one. [nonrestrictive]

The dessert made with fresh raspberries was delicious. [restrictive]
The dessert, made with fresh raspberries, was delicious. [nonrestrictive]

(In the first sentences above, the restrictive phrase tells the reader which of the two or more houses or desserts the writer is referring to. In the second sentences, the phrase merely adds information about the subject).

Most restrictive clauses are adjective clauses, modifying nouns. These clauses usually begin with WHO, WHOM, WHOSE, WHICH, or THAT.

THAT usually indicates a restrictive element and takes no commas.

Every motion that the plaintiff's lawyer made was denied.
An employee for a corporation that had government contracts altered the percentages in the contracts.

WHICH usually indicates a nonrestrictive element and is set off by commas:

All the motions, which the plaintiff's lawyer made with a loud voice, were denied.

His office, which is located near the interstate, was robbed twice last year.

Distinguish between nonrestrictive appositives (those that are not essential to the meaning of what they rename) and restrictive appositives (those that are essential).

Nonrestrictive:
Robert Frost, one of America's most popular poet, wrote "Birches."
Restrictive:
Robert Frost's poem "Birches" contains lines of folksy wisdom.
My wife, Sandra, has a master's degree in art.

Nonrestrictive use of which:
The Republican Party opposes new taxes that impose an undue burden on the American people.

The clause "that impose an undue burden on the American people" modifies and limits the word "taxes." We can change the meaning of the sentence by changing the punctuation of that clause. For example, if we added a comma after "taxes"--

The Republican Party opposes new taxes, which impose an undue burden on the American people.

the word taxes refers to ALL new taxes. In other words, the Republican Party opposes all new taxes, believing that all taxes impose a burden on the public. Thus, the clause is not necessary to the meaning of the sentence; the sentence could have stopped after the word taxes. One could almost say the clause contains parenthetical information.
However, if we take out the comma and substitute the word that for which--

The Republican Party opposes new taxes that impose an undue burden on the American people.

we have changed the meaning of the sentence. Now the Republican Party opposes only new taxes that impose a burden. The clause in this sense is necessary because it restricts the meaning of the word taxes.

THAT vs. WHICH
Restrictive or Defining Clauses use that or who with no commas:

The defendant who was convicted had a history of mental illness.
(Punctuation in the above sentence implies that there was more than one defendant.)

James Joyce's novel Ulysses was the subject of a landmark obscenity case.
(Punctuation in the above sentence implies that Joyce wrote more than one novel.)

Nonrestrictive Clauses begin with which (or who) and are set off by a comma or commas:

The defendant, who was convicted, had a history of mental illness.
(Punctuation in the above sentence implies that there was only one defendant.)

James Joyce's most important novel, Ulysses, was the subject of a landmark obscenity case.
(The sentence refers to only one novel, his "most important novel.")

The inmates , who have contracted the AIDS virus, have been isolated in the prison compound.
(Punctuation in the above sentence implies that all the inmates have contracted the virus.

Punctuate the following sentences according to restrictive or nonrestrictive elements:

Forum shopping is a technique that creates arbitrary damage award.

The provisions of the policy which excluded injuries received while juggling dynamite did not apply in Willard v Scott.

The cases that we briefed for the mock class were all from federal courts.

The milk which had soured was stamped February 26.

Todd's hangovers which are always medical emergencies prevented him from attending the classes that met in the morning.

I intended to recycle the papers that were at the bottom of the stairs.

The court held that O'Brien's will which disinherited his wife was intact.

The bankruptcy provisions which establish the homestead exemptions were not unconstitutional as a matter of law.

The bankruptcy provisions that eliminated unsecured creditors were unconstitutional.

In the courts opinion whether the dog was a known vicious animal was a question of fact for the jury who found for the defendant.

Therefore, the court affirmed the district court's holding which was contrary to the 3rd Circuit's holding in Bistretti.

Following four hours of deliberation the jury which was composed almost entirely of women emerged with a verdict that shocked the courtroom.

We will now pursue a deep pocket strategy which will force the company to settle.

We will now pursue a strategy that will force the company to settle.

The homeless man soaked in his own blood was a shooting victim.

A homeless man shivering in the cold is vulnerable to frostbite.

Even Michael Jordan his friend from North Carolina failed to recognize him.

Even his friend Michael Jordan failed to recognize him.

Gunpowder which has a distinctive odor was not found.

The kind of marijuana that smells acidic when smoked comes from Colombia.

All legal writers who follow the rules get rewarded.

All legal writers who break the rules get punished.

Legal writers who generally take care with their language demand clarity.

The defendant who is slumped in the chair was found guilty.

IV. Use a comma(s) to show contrast or negation, particularly in sentences that begin with an affirmative proposition followed by the negation:

The hearing focused on the causes, not the consequences.

The hearing focused on the causes, rather than the consequences, of the accident.

V. Use commas to set off subordinate clauses that interrupt sentences:

The husband, according to records produced by the bank, withdrew the entire joint savings account.

VI. Where there are separate, coordinate adjectives preceding the noun, ask if each adjective modifies the noun independently. If so, you should place a comma between each of the coordinate adjectives.

How can you tell whether the adjectives are "coordinate" and independent of one another?
1. Either reverse the adjectives (An old, musty handgun lay beside the body) or
2. Add an "and" between the adjectives (A musty and old handgun lay beside the body)

A musty, old handgun lay beside the body.

but--

The only witness was a nervous delivery boy. Here "delivery boy" functions as a compound noun.
He carried a black leather briefcase.
The yellow beach ball was deflated.

VII. Recall the rules for commas in dates, addresses, place names, and long numbers. For complete dates, use a comma to separate the day and year, and also use a comma following the year when the date occurs within a sentence:

April 23, 1979, is the day the statute of limitations began to run.

but no comma between the month and year when the day is not used--

In April 1979 he filed for an extension of time.

For dates in the military style--

We have hereby received your contract modification 23 April 1983.

For addresses, notice there is no comma preceding the zip code--

His last address was 1321 Cardinal Drive, Birmingham, Alabama 35223.

VIII. Use commas with attributions such as he said to set off direct quotations:

"I did not have sex with that woman," said President Clinton.

IX. ***One rule that you should certainly commit to memory is to place commas and periods inside quotation marks (in most cases), and to place colons and semicolons outside quotation marks:

According to the memorandum, the chief engineer Robert Axel, Jr., certified the wiring was "faulty," but he failed to remedy what the investigation called "the primary defect."

X. Use commas to set off nouns of direct address, the words yes and no, interrogative tags, and mild interjections:

Yes, the loan will probably be approved.
Did you, Mr. Spock, see the defendant talking to the owner of the pawn shop?
The alibi was a coincidence, wasn't it?
My gosh, the scar is hardly noticeable.

Other miscellaneous rules for the use of commas:

K. Use a comma to introduce quotations (may use colon)
L. Comma precedes Co., Inc., and Ltd.
K. Comma precedes and follows Jr., Sr., Esq., Ph.D., and similar titles.

Use commas for some introductory signals (Bluebook 1.2):

See, e.g., State v. Caryl, 543 P.2d 389, 390 (Mont. 1975).

E.g., Massachusetts Bd. Of Retirement v. Murgia, 427 U.S. 307 (1976).

But no commas occur with these signal words:
See
But see
See generally
Compare
See also

Frequent misuses of the comma:
Occasionally, a deposition reveals the case's weaknesses, but, more often they are routine.
Many school prayers, such as, those offered by students, do not infringe the guidelines.
Many school prayers, including, those offered by students, do not infringe the guidelines.
Although, the weather was cold in the afternoon, it had been hot that morning.
Mark Twain once said, that the reports of his death were greatly exaggerated.

SEMICOLON

Studies show that professional writers, including legal writers, use a great deal more semicolons than non-professionals. This fact suggests that semicolons are generative devices, rather than prescriptive devices. In other words, knowing how to use the semicolon should expand your options in writing.

The semicolon is essentially a balancing mark of punctuation. It structures sentences in which there are co-equal main clauses on either side, and it structures co-equal items in series. Therefore, the semicolon (which usually separates complete sentences) has a quite different function from the colon (see III. below).

The key is that semicolons separate complete sentences.

I. The most common use of the semicolon is to join two main clauses not joined by coordinating conjunction:

There are four houses in the area; each one reported a burglary in August 1987.

Why would the writer not join these two short sentences with a period? One reason is to avoid choppiness. But the main reason is that there is a natural transition between the two main clauses above that would be lost with a more definitive punctuation break. Use semi-colons when your two sentences follow each other closely and do not need the sharp break of a period:

His wife called; the husband immediately left the bar.

The victim recognized the defendant's features; he remembered his name.

Use the semi-colon to make clear comparisons or contrasts:

In 1800, a traveler needed six weeks to get from New York City to Chicago; in 1860, the trip by railroad took two days.

Injustice is relatively easy to bear; what stings is justice. (H.L. Mencken)

The Lord is my shepherd; I shall not want. (Ps. 23)

II. Another common sentence structure uses a semicolon to separate main clauses that are joined by a conjunctive adverb:

Only a small part of the company's roof was damaged; however, a nearby building was destroyed.

III. Semicolons are used to separate main clauses that are long and complex, or that contain internal punctuation:

The regulation banning smoking in public places, which was passed last summer, is having virtually no effect; and store owners complain that the ban hurts business.

IV. As illustrated above, semicolons sometimes separate items in a series when the items contain internal punctuation:

We must locate the following witnesses: John Flanders, whose last address was Longmont, Colorado; W.F. Irmscher of Seattle, Washington; and Eleanor Laney, a sister of the defendant who has moved to Dallas, Texas.

One can see that the sentence would be hopelessly confusing had the writer simply punctuated the items with commas.

Be careful not to use the semicolon to link subordinate clauses:

INCORRECT: The appraiser determined the value by examining a number of factors; such as the sales prices of similar houses in the area.
[Insert comma in place of semicolon]

Unlike commas, semicolons are placed outside quotation marks:

The witness replied, "I don't know"; however, the record shows that she was protecting her client.

COMMON MISUSES OF SEMI-COLON
Through the field glasses, the detective spotted the fugitive; climbing a steep bluff.
Three sites were being considered; Seattle, San Diego, and Portland.
We heard about the strategic plan proposed at the meeting; which increased the budget by twenty percent.
The truck needed repairs; although it would still run.
Optional:
The protest drew a variety of special interest groups, for example, environmental groups, manufacturers, and local residents.
OR
The protest drew a variety of special interest groups; for example, environmental groups, manufacturers, and local residents.

COLON

The colon has a more specialized use than the semicolon and in general does not separate main clauses. Instead, the colon most commonly functions to introduce a series of items. In this sense, the colon means "namely" or "for example." The colon calls attention to what follows.

The plaintiff's legal position depends upon two decisions of the court of appeals: State v. Burgess and State v. Ferguson.

A colon may precede a question, quotation, an explanation, an amplification, or an enumeration:

[amplification] The search was illegal: the officers had four days in which to acquire a search warrant and made no attempt to do so.

[quotation] Justice Brennan spoke for the court's majority: "The shipowners have surrendered completely to the control of the Association."

***A colon should not interrupt a sentence; a colon should precede a list only when formal words of introduction ("as follows") precede the list. Notice that the following sentence, when pronounced properly, contains no significant pause:

Included among the required courses were torts, contracts, civil procedure, and property.
OR
Included among the required courses were the following: torts, contracts, civil procedure, and property.
BUT NOT
Included among the required courses were: torts, contracts, civil procedure.

When a complete sentence follows a colon, the capital letter is optional:

An organization should incorporate for the following reason: The corporate shield protects individual members from liability.

Place the colon, like the semicolon, outside quotation marks.

When the colon introduces one word or a small number of words, you may choose a dash (see below):
The judge's decision was based on one basic rationale: the child's best interest.
OR
The judge based her decision on the paramount consideration–the child.

In some cases, you may choose either colon or semi-colon:
The merger was more than a matter of stock prices; it disrupted the employment conditions of an entire community.

APOSTROPHE

The apostrophe has two important uses:
(1) To indicate possession
(2) To indicate omitted letters (contractions)

Surprisingly, writers misuse, misplace, and overlook the apostrophe as much as any other mark of punctuation. Sometimes writers do not recognize the need for apostrophes when they use them:

it's can't two weeks' pay

To determine whether to use the apostrophe, the key is to determine whether the noun is SINGULAR or PLURAL.

1. For SINGULAR NOUNS NOT ENDING IN "S" add ‘s:
NASA's budget the man's occupation

For SINGULAR NOUNS ENDING IN A S, X, OR Z SOUND, add ‘s:
the box's ribbon
horse's saddle

2. For SINGULAR NOUNS ENDING IN "S" add ‘s (as a general rule):
Chris's car
the boss's decision

However, some writers prefer adding only the apostrophe, especially if the noun has two or more syllables or if you do not pronounce the extra syllable with the apostrophe:
Chris' car
James' car
Nicholas' car
Jones' or Jones's car

When a singular PROPER NAME is two syllables or more, you have the option of using ‘s or the apostrophe alone:
Michaels' or Michaels's Loveless' or Loveless's

3. Add only the apostrophe for plural words ending in -s:

the three Justices' ruling the horses' saddles

4. Add ‘s to plural nouns that do NOT end in -s:

the three men's dilemma the children's best interest

EXCEPTION: Some possessives are conventionalized:

Jesus' teaching
Socrates' philosophy
Keats' poetry
Yeats' biography

EXCEPTION: Add only the apostrophe if the -'s would make the possessive hard to pronounce, or for words that end in a double -ss:

for goodness' sake
Congress' pay raise
the business' profit

Add -'s to the last word of compound word, or in order to show joint possession:

Williams, Green, and Mucklestones' policy

Add -'s to each word to show individual possession:

Williams's and Green's property

Do not use apostrophe with words that are already possessive:

theirs, ours, his, its

Use apostrophes to show omission in contractions and in numbers:

didn't
he'll
class of ‘91

Use apostrophes for certain plurals:
his e's and o's
1940's or 1940s

QUOTATION MARKS

Use quotation marks for--

--poetry and prose passages;
--titles of shorter or periodic works (songs, short poems, short stories, essays, articles in periodicals, episodes of television and radio programs, and the subdivisions of books);
--misnomers or slang;
--for words used in a special sense;
--and of course, for direct quotations.

You should be aware that you must indicate any change if your quoted version differs from the original version, including brackets for changes in upper and lower case and parentheses for added emphasis:

Justice Stewart's famous dictum applies to only visual pornography: "I know it when I see it." (emphasis added).

Also be aware that the Bluebook specifies 50 WORDS as the dividing point for setting quotations off from the text. All quotations 49 words or less should be enclosed in quotation marks but continued in the text. Quotations of fifty or more words should be indented left and right, without quotation marks. There are also special rules for the citations of set-off quotations.

ELLIPSES (three spaced periods)

Follow the Bluebook rules for the use of ellipses (i.e., for omissions in the quoted versions), which are three periods separated by single spaces and set off by a space before the first and after the last period.

As an illustration, read this original version of the Tax Reform Act, section 1608:

ORIGINAL--
Amounts paid by a taxpayer to or for the benefit of an institution of higher education described in paragraph (1) or (2) of subsection (b) (other than amounts separately paid for tickets) which would otherwise qualify as a charitable contribution within the meaning of section 170 of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986 shall not be disqualified because such taxpayer receives the right to seating or the right to purchase seating in an athletic stadium of such institution.

1. Use ellipses to indicate omissions within quotations:

The new tax code provides that "[a]mounts paid by a taxpayer to or for the benefit of an institution of higher education . . . shall not be disqualified because such taxpayer receives the right to seating or the right to purchase seating in an athletic stadium of such institution."

2. If you use parts of the original as a phrase or clause within the grammatical structure of your own sentence, do NOT use ellipses to show omission of words at the beginning or end of the quoted sentence:

The taxpayer may still deduct charitable gifts to a college or university even though those gifts give the taxpayer "the right to seating or the right to purchase seating" for sporting events.

3. If the quoted portion stands by itself as a complete sentence and if you have omitted language at the end of the quoted sentence, place ellipses between the last word quoted and the final punctuation (a period in most cases):

"[A]mounts paid by a taxpayer to or for the benefit of an institution of higher education . . . shall not be disqualified . . . ."

[Note that the word "disqualified" is not the last word in the original sentence]

DASH

The dash is an informal mark of punctuation that should be restricted to these situations:

1. Use the dash sparingly in place of colon to introduce a short example or phrase:

Only one person can account for the events of that evening--the defendant.

2. To indicate sudden changes in tone or thought:

Title insurance on residential property--indeed on any kind of real property--protects the buyer from latent and remote claims to ownership.

3. To set off introductory series and summaries:

The reputation of the writer, the obscure references to sex, and the literary merit of the book--these were the factors that influenced the Ulysses decision.

4. To set off long, internal clauses, as a parentheses would:

Her petition for bankruptcy--she had already filed for debt consolidation three years ago--was anticipated by most creditors.

ITALICS (for use in text; rules for footnotes may differ):

A. Use italics or underlining for certain foreign (Latin) words: infra, quaere, qua, semble, inter alia, inter se, passim, sub nom., supra.

B. Use italics for signals used to introduce citations of authority: E.g., Accord, See, Cf., But see, Contra.

C. Use italics for names of cases, books, periodical articles, newspapers, ships, and aircraft.

NUMERALS (Bluebook 6.2)
A. In text, spell out numbers zero to ninety-nine.

B. In footnotes, spell out the numbers zero to nine.

C. Exceptions
a. Spell out numbers that begin sentences
b. You may spell out "hundred" or "thousand" if consistent
c. Spell out numbers in series